The Spirit was doing active ministry on Old Testament people, particularly on those whose hearts were committed to God. But the Spirit’s work was incomplete, compared to his work in New Covenant people. At the end, this post has the totals for the number of times the Spirit appears in the Old Testament, according to the genres of the Torah, the history books, wisdom literature and the prophets.
We cover the OT major section by major section. This is much more biblical theology than systematic theology. Though I like them both, I am more comfortable with the biblical.
Let’s begin.
I.. Genesis
A.. The Spirit hovered over the chaos to bring order.
I’m a traditionalist in my theology, so I prefer the translations which have “the Spirit of God” instead of “the wind of God.” The latter does not make sense (to me), because why would wind hover? Plus, the early chapters in Genesis are about bringing order out of chaos, and wind does not bring about order.
2 Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters. (Gen. 1:2)
B.. He reacts against the evil of earliest humanity.
The Spirit won’t contend with humans forever because they are mortal. They die. But they can bring God’s judgment on themselves. The passage here introduces awful things that humans did to provoke God to remove them with flood waters.
3 Then the Lord said, “My Spirit will not contend with humans forever, for they are mortal […] (Gen. 6:3)
C.. The Pharaoh recognized Joseph’s leadership.
Joseph proposed plans to prepare for famine. The Pharaoh liked them and said to his rulers and advisors, the following. Maybe the Pharaoh intended the spirit of the gods (elohim is plural “gods”): Or the author of Genesis intended it to be the Spirit of God.
37 The plan seemed good to Pharaoh and to all his officials. 38 So Pharaoh asked them, “Can we find anyone like this man, one in whom is the spirit of God”? (Gen. 41:37)
D.. Summary
1.. The Spirit was at work, behind the scenes.
2.. He does not tolerate longstanding rebellion and sin; he will judge it.
3.. The Spirit can live in people, like Joseph.
II.. The Torah and Israel in the Wilderness
A.. He guided God’s people in the time of Moses.
This is a great overview of God’s leadership to the ancient Israelites. The Psalmist twice credits the Spirit to be among them, God’s glory and power, who was at the right hand of Moses. The Spirit also gave the people rest.
Isaiah describes the days of Moses:
11 Then his people recalled the days of old,
the days of Moses and his people—
where is he who brought them through the sea,
with the shepherd of his flock?
Where is he who set
his Holy Spirit among them,
12 who sent his glorious arm of power
to be at Moses’ right hand,
who divided the waters before them,
to gain for himself everlasting renown,
13 who led them through the depths?
Like a horse in open country,
they did not stumble;
14 like cattle that go down to the plain,
they were given rest by the Spirit of the Lord.
This is how you guided your people
to make for yourself a glorious name. (Is. 63:11-14)
B.. He inspired prophecy in the seventy elders.
Moses needed the elders to take charge and help him. God sent his Spirit to the leaders, and they prophesied, though it is interesting that they prophesied only this one time.
24 So Moses went out and told the people what the Lord had said. He brought together seventy of their elders and had them stand around the tent. 25 Then the Lord came down in the cloud and spoke with him, and he took some of the power of the Spirit that was on him and put it on the seventy elders. When the Spirit rested on them, they prophesied—but did not do so again. (Num. 11:24-25)
C.. Moses wished that the Spirit would inspire all God’s people to prophesy.
Joshua reported to Moses that two men who were not elders were prophesying. Moses replied, in effect, “Good! I wish all God’s people would prophesy!” The prophet Joel, who lived long after Moses, predicts that all God’s people will prophesy. The prophet Joel, who lived long after Moses, predicts that all God’s people will prophesy. It will be fulfilled in Acts 2, at Pentecost.
26 However, two men, whose names were Eldad and Medad, had remained in the camp. They were listed among the elders, but did not go out to the tent. Yet the Spirit also rested on them, and they prophesied in the camp. 27 A young man ran and told Moses, “Eldad and Medad are prophesying in the camp.”
28 Joshua son of Nun, who had been Moses’ aide since youth, spoke up and said, “Moses, my lord, stop them!”
29 But Moses replied, “Are you jealous for my sake? I wish that all the Lord’s people were prophets and that the Lord would put his Spirit on them!” 30 Then Moses and the elders of Israel returned to the camp. (Num. 11:26-30)
D.. He gave artistic ability.
Bezalel was to oversee all the decorations and even the structural parts of the mobile tabernacle.
Then the Lord said to Moses, 2 “See, I have chosen Bezalel son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah, 3 and I have filled him with the Spirit of God, with wisdom, with understanding, with knowledge and with all kinds of skills— 4 to make artistic designs for work in gold, silver and bronze, 5 to cut and set stones, to work in wood, and to engage in all kinds of crafts. (Ex. 31:1-5)
E.. The Spirit inspired Balaam to prophesy the truth.
Balak was the king of Moab. He hired the prophet Balaam to prophesy evil over the people of Israel. But the Spirit took over and led him to prophesy blessing. Note how the Spirit came upon him.
Now when Balaam saw that it pleased the Lord to bless Israel, he did not resort to divination as at other times but turned his face toward the wilderness. 2 When Balaam looked out and saw Israel encamped tribe by tribe, the Spirit of God came on him (Num. 24:1-2)
F.. He put leadership in Joshua.
Moses needed a successor, and God said Joshua was the man. The NIV translation provides a footnote that says the phrase “spirit of leadership” could be translated as “Spirit of leadership.” I prefer their footnoted option. Most important of all, let’s all pray that God will grant many people the Spirit of leadership. (See Rom. 12:8 and Heb. 13:17).
18 So the Lord said to Moses, “Take Joshua son of Nun, a man in whom is the spirit of leadership, and lay your hand on him. (Num. 27:18)
G.. Summary
The Spirit leads people in the wilderness. He inspired people with prophecy. The elders prophesied only once. He gave practical skills to people for building and making things. He equips people for leadership.
III.. History Books
A.. Brief intro.
I was surprised at how many times the Spirit appears in the history books. Evidently, God saw the ancient Israelites needed help.
1.. He came on the judges.
The purpose was to wage war, judge, and have peace. (I only link to the verses because of the repetition.)
The Lord came upon Othniel, Caleb’s younger brother to be a judge and go to war. the rest of the passage says he was victorious. Israel enjoyed peace for forty years. Bottom line: the Spirit came upon him for service.
The Lord came upon Gideon to rally the tribes to fight against the Midianites, Amalekites and other eastern peoples, who allied to fight against Israel. Gideon was victorious, even though he had only three hundred men.This coming upon seems temporary, to accomplish a specific service to the Lord.
He was a mighty warrior in his own right. Still, the Spirit came on him to wage war against the Ammonites. However, he made a rash vow and his daughter had to die, as a human sacrifice. He was not wise enough to realize that the law provided a way out of his foolish vow (Lev. 27:1-8).
The Spirit of the Lord came on him as a young man, as the Lord blessed him.
The Spirit of the Lord came on Samson to fight thirty men of Ashkelon. He was victorious.
To fight against the Philistines, “The Spirit of the Lord came powerfully upon him.” He got out of their ropes they tied him with.
2.. The Spirit of the Lord came on Saul.
Samuel had just anointed him king, and Saul was about to join a company of prophets. The Spirit came on him and changed him, ready for service.
[…] As you approach the town, you will meet a procession of prophets coming down from the high place with lyres, timbrels, pipes and harps being played before them, and they will be prophesying. 6 The Spirit of the Lord will come powerfully upon you, and you will prophesy with them; and you will be changed into a different person. 7 Once these signs are fulfilled, do whatever your hand finds to do, for God is with you. (1 Sam. 10:5-7)
The king of the Ammonites conquered the town of Jabesh and gouged out the right eye of each man. When Saul heard about it, The Spirit came on him and he gathered the troops and defeated their enemy. Anger is often associated with judgment.
6 When Saul heard their words, the Spirit of God came powerfully upon him, and he burned with anger. (1 Sam. 16:6)
3.. The Spirit came on David at his anointing by Samuel.
13 So Samuel took the horn of oil and anointed him in the presence of his brothers, and from that day on the Spirit of the Lord came powerfully upon David. (1 Sam. 16:13)
4.. The Spirit departed from Saul, and an evil spirit took him over.
How can an evil spirit come from the Lord? This is God’s sending an evil spirit to judge a man in the Old Testament. This is most vividly portrayed in 1 Kings 22. (See the parallel passage in 2 Chronicles 18.) God asked if a lying spirit would deceive two kings, Ahaz and Jehoshaphat, through their prophets. One spirit volunteered, and the kings’ prophets were deceived. This happens when judgment was issued. In the normal course of a Christian’s life, the Holy Spirit does not depart, and an evil spirit does not take over. However, during s time of judgment, when a Christian is in unconfessed habitual sin, an evil spirit will attack because the door is open. This is God’s judgment and discipline (see Heb. 12:4-11 and the Lord’s discipline).
14 Now the Spirit of the Lord had departed from Saul, and an evil spirit from the Lord tormented him.
15 Saul’s attendants said to him, “See, an evil spirit from God is tormenting you. (1 Sam. 16:13-15; see 16:16, 23; 18:10; 19:9)
5.. Saul’s men prophesied to halt Saul’s attack on David.
Samuel led the company of prophet. When three sets of Saul’s men approached one group after another. The power of the Spirit was powerful enough to affect them and change their course. here’s what happened.
19 Word came to Saul: “David is in Naioth at Ramah”; 20 so he sent men to capture him. But when they saw a group of prophets prophesying, with Samuel standing there as their leader, the Spirit of God came on Saul’s men, and they also prophesied. 21 Saul was told about it, and he sent more men, and they prophesied too. Saul sent men a third time, and they also prophesied. (1 Sam. 19:19-21)
6.. The Spirit inspired David’s writings and words
David’s last words said the Spirit inspired and spoke through him: And so the Spirit inspired David to write the psalms and inspired him to speak in other contexts not mentioned here.
2 “The Spirit of the Lord spoke through me;
his word was on my tongue.
3 The God of Israel spoke,
the Rock of Israel said to me:
‘When one rules over people in righteousness,
when he rules in the fear of God,
4 he is like the light of morning at sunrise
on a cloudless morning,
like the brightness after rain
that brings grass from the earth.’ (2 Sam. 23:2-4)
7.. The Spirit could carry a prophet away bodily.
Obadiah was a devout believer in the Lord and an administrator to King Ahab. He met Elijah on the road. The prophet told Obadiah to tell the king that Elijah was here. Obadiah was frightened because if Elijah was whisked away, the king would kill Obadiah, so the administrator refused. In this verse Obadiah. In the end, Elijah did meet Ahab because Obadiah told the king the message.
12 I don’t know where the Spirit of the Lord may carry you when I leave you. If I go and tell Ahab and he doesn’t find you, he will kill me. Yet I your servant have worshiped the Lord since my youth. (1 Kings 18:12)
This company of the prophets believed that the Spirit could carry Elijah off:
15 The company of the prophets from Jericho, who were watching, said, “The spirit of Elijah is resting on Elisha.” And they went to meet him and bowed to the ground before him. 16 “Look,” they said, “we your servants have fifty able men. Let them go and look for your master. Perhaps the Spirit of the Lord has picked him up and set him down on some mountain or in some valley.” (2 Kings 2:15-17)
This whisking away reminds me of Philip in the Book of Acts. After he baptized the Ethiopian eunuch, the Spirit carried him to another place.
39 When they came up out of the water, the Spirit of the Lord suddenly took Philip away, and the eunuch did not see him again, but went on his way rejoicing. (Acts 8:39)
8.. The Spirit prompts loyalty and even a poetic prophecy vow.
David was banished from Saul’s presence and hid in the wilderness. Mighty warriors gathered around him and professed their loyalty to him. Now what about the men whom Amasai led? David questioned him. If the man intended to betray David, they should go away. But the Spirit came on the leader, and he spoke words of loyalty.
18 Then the Spirit came on Amasai, chief of the Thirty, and he said:
“We are yours, David!
We are with you, son of Jesse!
Success, success to you,
and success to those who help you,
for your God will help you.” (1 Chron. 12:18)
9.. He inspired David’s plans for the temple.
David was not allowed to build the temple because he was a man of bloodshed. However, the Spirit put into his heart the plans for his son Solomon, so he could build it..
12 He gave him the plans of all that the Spirit had put in his mind for the courts of the temple of the Lord and all the surrounding rooms, for the treasuries of the temple of God and for the treasuries for the dedicated things. (1 Chron. 28:12)
10.. He inspired Azariah, a prophet.
Azariah son of Oded was a remarkable prophet. He is addressing King Asa during the king’s reforms. I really like the truths that Azariah spoke: The Lord is with you when you are with him.
The Spirit of God came on Azariah son of Oded. 2 He went out to meet Asa and said to him, “Listen to me, Asa and all Judah and Benjamin. The Lord is with you when you are with him. If you seek him, he will be found by you, but if you forsake him, he will forsake you. 3 For a long time Israel was without the true God, without a priest to teach and without the law. (2 Chron. 15:1-3)
11.. He came on priests and Levites.
Jahaziel was a Levite, descended of Asaph, the musical leader in the temple. He spoke a prophecy of encouragement to King Jehoshaphat, when the kings of Moab and Ammon formed a coalition to attack Judah and the king. The king humbled himself and prayed a wonderful prayer of dependence on the Lord. God worked a great victory for Judah and the king. The promises are great. Jahaziel said:
14 Then the Spirit of the Lord came on Jahaziel son of Zechariah, the son of Benaiah, the son of Jeiel, the son of Mattaniah, a Levite and descendant of Asaph, as he stood in the assembly.
15 He said: “Listen, King Jehoshaphat and all who live in Judah and Jerusalem! This is what the Lord says to you: ‘Do not be afraid or discouraged because of this vast army. For the battle is not yours, but God’s. (2 Chron. 14-15)
A second example of a priest receiving a prophetic word from the Spirit. Zechariah spoke out against King Jehoash of Judah and the people for their disobedience and rebellion. Their response was to stone him to death in the courtyard of the temple.
19 Although the Lord sent prophets to the people to bring them back to him, and though they testified against them, they would not listen.
20 Then the Spirit of God came on Zechariah son of Jehoiada the priest. He stood before the people and said, “This is what God says: ‘Why do you disobey the Lord’s commands? You will not prosper. Because you have forsaken the Lord, he has forsaken you.’”
21 But they plotted against him, and by order of the king they stoned him to death in the courtyard of the Lord’s temple. (2 Chron. 24:19-21)
12.. Levites proclaim the reality of God’s Spirit.
In Nehemiah’s time, the Spirit instructed the people and inspired prophets to warn them. During a time of repentance, the Levites—Jeshua, Kadmiel, Bani, Hashabneiah, Sherebiah, Hodiah, Shebaniah and Pethahiah—said to the people a long review of God’s goodness throughout the history of Israel. One blessing is that God sent gave the people his good Spirit to teach them.
20 You gave your good Spirit to instruct them. You did not withhold your manna from their mouths, and you gave them water for their thirst. (Neh. 9:20)
Another part of the long review and exhortation says that God gave his Spirit to the prophets to warn the people. The prophets were “law enforcement,” that is, the Law of Moses. They paid no attention, but God had mercy on them, after his judgment on them. He restored them back to their land.
30 For many years you were patient with them. By your Spirit you warned them through your prophets. Yet they paid no attention, so you gave them into the hands of the neighboring peoples. 31 But in your great mercy you did not put an end to them or abandon them, for you are a gracious and merciful God. (Neh. 9:30-31)
B.. Summary
The Spirit inspires certain people to prophesy. He came on certain people for service. He is said to be able to whisk people away. He builds loyalty in people. He warns through prophets.
IV.. Devotional and Wisdom Writings
A.. The Spirit lives in people and gives them life.
A friend of Job named Elihu was angry at Job for justifying himself. Elihu was not right, but he has a basic belief about the Spirit. In this verse the NIV translators suggest an alternative translation of “spirit” to “Spirit.” Perhaps they chose “spirit” because people without God do not have the Holy Spirit in them permanently.
8 But it is the spirit in a person,
the breath of the Almighty, that gives them understanding. (Job 32:8)
Elihu is still speaking. He believes, rightly, that the Spirit made him and gave him life.
4 The Spirit of God has made me;
the breath of the Almighty gives me life. (Job 33:4):
Elihu is still right in his pneumatology (doctrine of the Spirit). Again the NIV suggests “Spirit” for “spirit.” It is true that if God withdrew his Spirit, people would perish.
14 If it were his intention
and he withdrew his spirit and breath,
15 all humanity would perish together
and mankind would return to the dust. (Job 33:14-15)
B.. The Spirit provides God’s presence.
King David is praying for God’s forgiveness after the king’s sin with Bathsheba. He asks God not to take his presence or Holy Spirit, so David equates the Spirit and presence. He saw the Spirit withdraw from Saul (see III. D). Would God do the same to David? Further, in the NT, the Spirit will not withdraw after we sin because he wants to work with us. He wants to grant us repentance. But he can be grieved.
11 Do not cast me from your presence
or take your Holy Spirit from me. (Ps. 51:11)
David is extolling God’s presence and spirit. Wherever David goes God is there by his Spirit. This teaches the omniscience of the Spirit, on an equal level as God.
7 Where can I go from your Spirit?
Where can I flee from your presence? (Ps. 139:7)
C.. He gives life to created animals.
Let’s go back to creation in the Psalms. The context says that the creatures in the natural world depend on the Spirit.
30 When you send your Spirit,
they are created,
and you renew the face of the ground. (Ps. 104:30)
D.. Rebelling against the Spirit is a rebellion against tGod.
The psalmist recounts the history of Israel, particularly during the wilderness. The people tested God at the waters of Meribah.
32 By the waters of Meribah they angered the Lord,
and trouble came to Moses because of them;
33 for they rebelled against the Spirit of God,
and rash words came from Moses’ lips. (Ps. 106:32-33)
E.. The Spirit guides.
10 Teach me to do your will,
for you are my God;
may your good Spirit
lead me on level ground. (Ps. 143:10)
F.. Summary
The Spirit is creator and sustains people. He provides God’s presence. He is omniscient. He is God. He guides.
V. Prophets
A.. He inspired prophecy.
The people refused to listen to the prophets, even though the prophets were inspired by God.
12 They made their hearts as hard as flint and would not listen to the law or to the words that the Lord Almighty had sent by his Spirit through the earlier prophets. (Zech. 7:12)
Let’s jump ahead and read how Peter summarized the Old Testament prophets.
21 For prophecy never had its origin in the human will, but prophets, though human, spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit. (2 Peter 1:21)
B.. Prophets promise the coming of the Spirit.
A shoot will come up from the stump of Jesse. The Spirit will remain on him.
Judea and Jerusalem will be barren until the Spirit is poured out from on high and everything become fertile and functional. The Spirit can do the same to you.
God will put his spirit in the servant of the Lord. Matthew 12:19-21 quotes from these verses and applies them to Jesus.
Israel is barren, but God will pour out his Spirit and renew everything.
The Spirit of the Lord is on God’s servant. The Lord will anoint him to proclaim good news. Jesus quotes from this passage and applies it to himself at the start of his ministry (Luke 4:18-19).
God promises through his prophet Ezekiel that one day God’s Spirit will restore Israel and Jerusalem.
God will put his Spirit in Israel, to restore his people.
In a prophecy against Gog, a ruler who will devastate Israel, God promises through his prophet Ezekiel to pour out his Spirit on Israel and restore the people.
Joel prophesies that the Spirit will be poured out on all people. Peter quotes this passage in Acts 2:17-18.
C.. He fills people.
The Spirit filled Ezekiel to strengthen him in his calling. A voice from the throne of God is speaking.
He said to me, “Son of man, stand up on your feet and I will speak to you.” 2 As he spoke, the Spirit came into me and raised me to my feet, and I heard him speaking to me. (Ezek. 2:1-2)
The glory of the Lord sent his Spirit into Ezekiel and lifted him up:
24 Then the Spirit came into me and raised me to my feet. (Ezek. 3:23)
The Spirit will permanently fill his people one day. I believe this is fulfilled in the New Testament, at Pentecost, in Acts 2.
27 And I will put my Spirit in you and move you to follow my decrees and be careful to keep my laws. (Ezek. 36:27)
Micah was filled with the Spirit, to complete his ministry of a prophet.
7 The seers will be ashamed
and the diviners disgraced.
They will all cover their faces
because there is no answer from God.”
8 But as for me, I am filled with power,
with the Spirit of the Lord,
and with justice and might,
to declare to Jacob his transgression,
to Israel his sin. (Micah 3:7-8)
D.. The Spirit remained with his covenant people.
Haggai said that when the people left Egypt, the spirit remained with them. Zerubbabel was the governor of Jerusalem.
4 But now be strong, Zerubbabel,’ declares the Lord. ‘Be strong, Joshua son of Jozadak, the high priest. Be strong, all you people of the land,’ declares the Lord, ‘and work. For I am with you,’ declares the Lord Almighty. 5 ‘This is what I covenanted with you when you came out of Egypt. And my Spirit remains among you. Do not fear.’ (Hagai 2:4-5)
E.. The Spirit physically lifted Ezekiel.
In this verse the Spirit lifted Ezekiel to his feet and strengthened him in his calling:
In the next passage, the Spirit lifted him up and took him away. I have the impression that this is what happened to Philip (Acts 8:39).
Ezekiel saw a fiery angelic visitor, who lifted him by the hair. Then the Spirit lifted him up to see Jerusalem in vision.
The Spirit lifted him up and brought him to the gate in Jerusalem and saw evil men plotting.
The Spirit lifted him up and brought him to the exiles in Babylonia.
The Spirit brought him to a valley, where he will watch bones come to life and and have flesh put on them.
The Spirit lifted Ezekiel and brought him to the temple courts.
F.. He completes the task or mission.
An angel is speaking to Zechariah, and the angel wants the prophet to encourage Zerubbabel, the governor. The governor and the people had to work, but it is the Spirit who enables them.
6 So he said to me, “This is the word of the Lord to Zerubbabel: ‘Not by might nor by power, but by my Spirit,’ says the Lord Almighty. (Zech. 4:4)
G.. Summary
The Spirit spoke through prophets. He is coming in the near and distant future. Progressive revelation is a fact of the Bible. No matter how dire and disobedient the people were out of Egypt, the Spirit remained with them. He filled certain ones of his Old Testament people. He even lifted Ezekiel physically (see Acts 8:39). He empowered people to complete their mission.
VI.. Application
A.. The Spirit did not fill people permanently in the Old Testament.
The Spirit came on judges and prophets and leaders. He entered Ezekiel. He even lifted him and whisked him away. It can even be said that this is multiple reenactments of the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost. The prophets promised this outpouring on all people (Joel 2:28-32).
B.. The Spirit worked mightily in Elijah and Elisha.
In the history books Elijah and Elisha must have performed miracles by the power of the Spirit, and the company of the prophets surely prophesied by the spirit, even though the word “Spirit” is not recorded.
C.. Perspective from the New Testament
Everything culminates at Pentecost, in Acts 2. The number of references to the Spirit in John’s Gospel and Acts and epistles is enormous, far outnumbering the ones in the entire Old Testament.
The Old Testament does not have a developed pneumatology as we see in John, Romans 8 or Galatians 5. (Paul’s epistles have 100). Even the narrative portions of the Old Testament do not match Acts (53) in the number of times the Spirit is mentioned.
D.. Differences in the Old and New Testaments
So once again, there is a clear distinction between the Old Testament and New Testament. Progressive revelation is a fact of the Bible. What is introduced in the Old Testament is carried forward and expanded on and clarified in the New.
E. Totals
I added up the number of times “Spirit” is mentioned throughout the Old Testament. I excluded human spirit and evil spirit. I may have missed a few, but the totals are close approximates to the real numbers (or so I hope).
Genesis: 3
Torah and Wilderness: 6
History Books: 31
Devotional and Wisdom Writings: 8
Prophets: 23
Grand Total: 72
F. Analysis
The OT makes up 70% of the entire Bible, and the NT makes up the other 30%. Yet the Spirit ministers in the NT much, much more frequently than the OT: 240 times.
Biggest surprises (for me at least): the history books have the most occurrences of the word of the word Spirit, while the wisdom writings have only eight appearances. Granted, the history books are much, much longer by word count than the other major sections of Scripture.
Also, the word does not appear in the prophets more than in the history books. The prophets Elijah and Elisha must have performed their miracles by the Spirit, even when the word Spirit itself does not appear all the time. And in the history books the company of the prophets surely prophesied by the Spirit, although the authors do not record the word. And the prophets in the prophetical writings spoke by the Spirit without the word appearing.
So, the above totals are possibly incomplete by a few verses here and there, but we still get a good idea of the emphases in each major section of the Old Testament.
Dr. Jim's Essential Bible Teaching 